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Katherine M. Flegal, PhD; Margaret D. Carroll, MS; Cynthia L. Ogden, PhD; Clifford L. Johnson, MSPH

JAMA. 2002;288:1723-1727.

ABSTRACT
Context  The prevalence of obesity and overweight increased in the United States between 1978 and 1991. More recent reports have suggested continued increases but are based on self-reported data.

Objective  To examine trends and prevalences of overweight (body mass index [BMI] 25) and obesity (BMI 30), using measured height and weight data.

Design, Setting, and Participants  Survey of 4115 adult men and women conducted in 1999 and 2000 as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a nationally representative sample of the US population.

Main Outcome Measure  Age-adjusted prevalence of overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity compared with prior surveys, and sex-, age-, and race/ethnicity–specific estimates.

Results  The age-adjusted prevalence of obesity was 30.5% in 1999-2000 compared with 22.9% in NHANES III (1988-1994; P<.001). The prevalence of overweight also increased during this period from 55.9% to 64.5% (P<.001). Extreme obesity (BMI 40) also increased significantly in the population, from 2.9% to 4.7% (P = .002). Although not all changes were statistically significant, increases occurred for both men and women in all age groups and for non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Mexican Americans. Racial/ethnic groups did not differ significantly in the prevalence of obesity or overweight for men. Among women, obesity and overweight prevalences were highest among non-Hispanic black women. More than half of non-Hispanic black women aged 40 years or older were obese and more than 80% were overweight.

Conclusions  The increases in the prevalences of obesity and overweight previously observed continued in 1999-2000. The potential health benefits from reduction in overweight and obesity are of considerable public health importance.

INTRODUCTION

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Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III; 1988-1994) showed that the prevalence of obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher, had increased by approximately 8 percentage points in the United States after being relatively stable from 1960 to 1980.^1-2 Since those data were published, additional reports from other sources have suggested that these trends are continuing.^3-6 However, those reports from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) and the Harris Poll have limitations because they are based on self-reported weight and height. Obesity prevalence estimates based on self-reported data tend to be lower than those based on measured data.⁴ For example, the BRFSS showed a prevalence of obesity of 12% to 14.4% during 1991 to 1994⁴; the corresponding NHANES estimate of 22.5% for 1988 to 1994² was more than 50% higher than the BRFSS estimates. National examination survey data based on measured weight and height data provide the best opportunity to track trends in weight in the United States. In this article we report the results from the latest NHANES data from 1999-2000 regarding population trends in obesity and in the frequency distribution of BMI.

METHODS

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Surveys

The NHANES program of the National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, includes a series of cross-sectional nationally representative health examination surveys beginning in 1960. Each cross-sectional survey provides a national estimate for the US population at the time of the survey, enabling examination of trends over time in the US population. In each survey a nationally representative sample of the US civilian noninstitutionalized population was selected using a complex, stratified, multistage probability cluster sampling design. Previous national surveys include the first National Health Examination Survey (NHES I, 1960-1962) and the first, second, and third NHANES surveys (NHANES I, 1971-1974; NHANES II, 1976-1980; and NHANES III, 1988-1994).^7-10

Beginning in 1999, NHANES became a continuous survey without a break between cycles. The procedures followed to select the sample and conduct the interview and examination were similar to those for previous surveys. This report is based on data for 4115 adult men and women from the first 2 years of the continuous NHANES (1999-2000). Two or more years of data are necessary to have adequate sample sizes for subgroup analyses.

BMI and Obesity

Weight and height were measured in a mobile examination center using standardized techniques and equipment. Body mass index was calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters. For adults, overweight was defined as a BMI of 25.0 or higher, obesity as a BMI of 30.0 or higher, and extreme obesity as a BMI of 40 or higher.² These definitions are consistent with those of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the World Health Organization.^11-12

Data Analysis and Statistical Methods

Statistical analyses were carried out using SAS for Windows software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC) and SUDAAN software (RTI, Research Triangle Park, NC). For all surveys, sampling weights had been calculated that took into account unequal probabilities of selection resulting from the sample design, from nonresponse, and from planned oversampling of certain subgroups. All analyses took into account differential probabilities of selection and the complex sample design. Standard errors were calculated with SUDAAN using Taylor series linearization for NHANES III.¹³ For NHANES 1999-2000, SEs were calculated using the delete 1 jackknife method,¹³ partitioning the sample into 52 sampling units and forming 52 replicates by deleting one unit at a time. Statistical hypotheses were tested univariately at the .05 level using a t statistic. To adjust for multiple comparisons when 3 racial/ethnic groups were compared, the Bonferroni method was used. For graphical comparison, the frequency distributions of BMI from both surveys were smoothed using a nonparametric smoothing algorithm, based on sequential calculations of running medians for groups of adjacent points.¹⁴

RESULTS

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The prevalence of obesity (BMI 30) during 1960 to 2000 in the United States by age and sex categories for those aged 20 to 74 years is shown in Table 1. For surveys up through NHANES II, data were available only for respondents younger than 75 years. The prevalence of obesity was relatively constant from 1960 to 1980, then increased as reported by NHANES III in 1988-1994. The most recent data, from NHANES 1999-2000, show further increases for both men and women and in all age groups. The increases from NHANES II to NHANES III were statistically significant in all sex-age groups. Statistically significant increases also occurred from NHANES III to NHANES 1999-2000, except for the increase for men aged 40 to 59 years, which was not statistically significant but showed the same trend. The increases between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 were almost as large as the increases between NHANES II and NHANES III and were not significantly different.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window] Table 1. Trends in the Age-Adjusted and Age-Specific Prevalence of Obesity for Adults Aged 20-74 Years, 1960-2000*

A more detailed examination of trends by age over a broader age range between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 is possible because both surveys had no upper age limit. The prevalence of obesity for both surveys for all adults and by sex and 10-year age groups is shown in Table 2. Increases in the prevalence of obesity occurred for both men and women and in all age groups. Because the SEs are relatively large, particularly for NHANES 1999-2000, the differences are not always statistically significant, but the trends are similar across all subgroups.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window] Table 2. Changes in the Prevalence of Obesity Between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 by Sex and Age*

The changes in the prevalence of obesity and extreme obesity between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 by sex and racial/ethnic group for 3 groups—non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Mexican Americans—are shown in Table 3. In each subgroup the prevalence of both obesity and extreme obesity increased between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000. The increases were generally similar across all groups, although there was a nonsignificant trend for a larger increase in non-Hispanic black women. For obesity, the increases were not statistically significant for Mexican Americans, although trends were in the same direction as for the other racial/ethnic groups. For extreme obesity, the increases were significant for men and women overall and for non-Hispanic black women. In other racial/ethnic groups, the increases were not statistically significant, although the trends were in the same direction.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window] Table 3. Changes in Age-Adjusted Prevalence of Obesity and Extreme Obesity by Sex and Racial/Ethnic Group for Adults Aged 20 Years and Older*

More detailed information on the prevalence of overweight and obesity by age, sex, and racial/ethnic group from NHANES 1999-2000 is shown in Table 4. The prevalence of overweight, which was 55.9% in NHANES III, increased to 64.5% (P<.001). The prevalences of overweight and obesity among men varied little by racial/ethnic group and there were no significant differences. Among women, non-Hispanic black women had a higher prevalence of both overweight and obesity than did non-Hispanic white women. For Mexican American women, the prevalence was intermediate between the other 2 groups and was not significantly different from either non-Hispanic white women or non-Hispanic black women. Data on extreme obesity are not shown because the estimates within subgroups were statistically unreliable.

View this table: [in this window] [in a new window] Table 4. Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity by Age, Sex, and Racial/Ethnic Group: United States, 1999-2000

The distribution of BMI in the population was also evaluated. For men aged 60 to 79 years, the distribution of BMI between NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 has shifted to the right (Figure 1), but the shift is greater at the upper percentiles of the distribution, indicating that the distribution has become more skewed. This pattern was also seen for men and women aged 20 to 39 years and 40 to 59 years (data not shown). For women aged 60 to 79 years the shift is more uniform (Figure 1).

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window] Figure. Nonparametrically Smoothed Distributions of Body Mass Index From NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 NHANES indicates National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

COMMENT

Jump to Section  • Top  • Introduction  • Methods  • Results  • Comment  • Author information  • References

These data indicate that the trends in BMI and the prevalence of obesity previously observed between the 1976-1980 NHANES II survey and the 1988-1994 NHANES III survey appear to be continuing at a similar level in 1999-2000. Although these increases in obesity observed in NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000 appear dramatic compared with previous surveys, they may also be viewed as part of a longer-term trend for increases in body size in affluent and well-nourished societies. In the United States, mean BMI appears to have been increasing over a long time, with recent increases perhaps less steep than those earlier.¹⁵ Other developed countries are experiencing similar increases, and less developed countries also show increases in obesity as they become more affluent.¹² As with NHANES III, the increases seen in NHANES 1999-2000 appear to be occurring in both men and women, in all age groups, and in all racial/ethnic groups studied.

The findings also reflect the difference in prevalence estimates based on measured vs self-reported height and weight. The 2000 BRFSS data³ estimate an obesity prevalence of 19.8% among adults compared with the estimated prevalence of 30.5% in our study. Relatively little is known about the precise causes of these trends.^16-18 Although they must reflect energy imbalances in the sense that energy intake must exceed energy expenditure for weight to increase, the nature of the imbalances is not clear. Both dietary intake and physical activity are difficult to measure, and trends in these factors are not easy to evaluate. A more fundamental problem is to identify the social, economic, and cultural forces leading to energy imbalance. Advances in technology, changes in work life, the advent of computers, trends in eating out vs food preparation at home, time pressures, fear of crime, decreases in tobacco use, and many other factors have been suggested, but definitive data are lacking that would clearly associate changes in these factors with the increase in obesity on an individual basis.

The increases in overweight and obesity raise questions about the implications of these trends for health outcomes. Obesity is a risk factor for many chronic conditions including diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, stroke, heart disease, certain cancers, and arthritis. Of these conditions, diabetes may be most closely linked to obesity, and its prevalence appears to have increased as the prevalence of obesity increased.¹⁹ The increasing incidence of diabetes worldwide is of considerable concern.²⁰ Clinical trials have demonstrated that a structured lifestyle intervention including dietary change, weight loss, and increased physical activity can reduce the risk of progressing to diabetes mellitus from impaired glucose tolerance.^21-22

Other conditions, such as hypercholesterolemia and hypertension, declined between NHANES II and NHANES III at the same time that the prevalence of obesity was increasing.^23-24 Total cardiovascular mortality and mortality from coronary heart disease and stroke have also declined over these years.²⁵ Obesity is a risk factor for these conditions; however, not everyone with these conditions is obese, and not all obese people have these conditions.^26-27 There are several risk factors other than obesity for most of these health conditions, and intervening on these other risk factors may be necessary.^{11, 26-27} Changes in other risk factors might also affect trends in these health conditions. It is also possible that some of the conditions associated with obesity may respond to interventions such as change in the fat content of the diet or increases in physical activity that are not necessarily accompanied by large changes in body weight.¹¹

Relatively little is known about the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity on a population-wide basis.^28-29 On an individual level, structured programs that emphasize lifestyle changes, including education, reduced fat and energy intake, regular physical activity, and regular staff contacts with participants, can produce modest long-term weight loss on the order of 5% to 10% of starting weight.³⁰

It likely will be difficult to reverse the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States. Even as long ago as 1960, almost 50% of men and more than 40% of women were overweight, and 11% of men and 16% of women were obese. As was shown previously for the shifts between NHANES II and NHANES III,³¹ the entire distribution of BMI appears to be affected, with a shift to the right occurring in all age-sex groups. Thus, these appear to be population-wide changes, not limited just to the upper portion of the distribution. Although the health implications of the increases in obesity and the costs and the risks and benefits associated with treatments and interventions have not been completely elucidated, the increase in the prevalence of obesity is clear. The potential health benefits from reduction in overweight and obesity are a matter of considerable public health importance.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

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Author Contributions: Study concept and design: Flegal.

Acquisition of data: Johnson.

Analysis and interpretation of data: Flegal, Carroll, Ogden, Johnson.

Drafting of the manuscript: Flegal.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Flegal, Carroll, Ogden, Johnson.

Statistical expertise: Flegal, Carroll,

Administrative, technical, or material support: Johnson.

Corresponding Author and Reprints: Katherine M. Flegal, PhD, National Center for Health Statistics, 6525 Belcrest Rd, Room 900, Hyattsville, MD 20782 (e-mail: kmf2{at}cdc.gov).

Author Affiliations: National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, Md.

REFERENCES

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Available at: http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID = 288. Accessed June 28, 2002. 7. National Center for Health Statistics. Plan and initial program of the Health Examination Survey. Vital Health Stat 1. 1965;4:1-43. 8. National Center for Health Statistics. Plan and operation of the Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, United States 1971-73. Vital Health Stat 1. 1973;1:1-77. 9. McDowell A, Engel A, Massey JT, Maurer K. Plan and operation of the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976-80. Vital Health Stat 1. 1981;Series 1(15):1-144. 10. National Center for Health Statistics. Plan and operation of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-94. Vital Health Stat 1. 1994;32:1-407. 11. NHLBI Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: the evidence report. Obes Res. 1998;6(suppl 2):51S-209S. 12. WHO Consultation on Obesity. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2000. WHO Technical Report Series 894. 13. Wolter KM. Introduction to Variance Estimation. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1990. 14. Velleman PF, Hoaglin DC. Applications, Basics and Computing of Exploratory Data Analysis. Boston, Mass: Duxbury Press; 1981. 15. Costa DL, Steckel RH. Long-term trends in health, welfare, and economic growth in the United States. In: Steckel RH, Floud R, eds. Health and Welfare During Industrialization. Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago Press; 1997:47-89. A National Bureau of Economic Research Project Report. 16. Sorenson TIA. The changing lifestyle in the world—body weight and what else? Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl 2):B1-B4. 17. Taubes G. As obesity rates rise, experts struggle to explain why. Science. 1998;280:1367-1368. FREE FULL TEXT 18. Martinez J. Body weight regulation: causes of obesity. Proc Nutr Soc. 2000;59:337-345. ISI | PUBMED 19. Harris MI, Flegal KM, Cowie CC, et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in US adults: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:518-524. ABSTRACT 20. McKinlay J, Marceau L. US public health and the 21st century: diabetes mellitus. Lancet. 2000;356:757-761. FULL TEXT | ISI | PUBMED 21. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403. FREE FULL TEXT 22. Tuomilehto J, Lindstrom J, Eriksson JG, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1343-1350. FREE FULL TEXT 23. Johnson CL, Rifkind BM, Sempos CT, et al. Declining serum total cholesterol levels among US adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. JAMA. 1993;269:3002-3008. FREE FULL TEXT 24. Burt VL, Cutler JA, Higgins M, et al. Trends in the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in the adult US population: data from the Health Examination Surveys, 1960-1991. Hypertension. 1995;26:60-69. FREE FULL TEXT 25. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortality: 2002 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung and Blood Diseases. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/02_chtbk.pdf. 26. National Cholesterol Education Program. Third Report of the Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/index.htm. Accessibility verified September 10, 2002. 27. The Sixth Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2413-2446. FREE FULL TEXT 28. Jeffery RW. Public health strategies for obesity treatment and prevention. Am J Health Behav. 2001;25:252-259. ISI | PUBMED 29. Douketis JD, Feightner JW, Attia J, Feldman WF. Periodic health examination, 1999 update: 1—detection, prevention and treatment of obesity. CMAJ. 1999;160:513-525. ABSTRACT 30. Wing RR, Goldstein MG, Acton KJ, et al. Behavioral science research in diabetes: lifestyle changes related to obesity, eating behavior, and physical activity. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:117-123. FREE FULL TEXT 31. Flegal KM, Troiano RP. Changes in the distribution of body mass index of adults and children in the US population. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24:807-818. FULL TEXT | ISI | PUBMED

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Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Breast Cancer Risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study Cohort
Brinton et al.
Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:3150-3160.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Obesity and the lung: 4 {middle dot} Obesity and asthma
Sin and Sutherland
Thorax 2008;63:1018-1023.
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Epidemiology of Obesity in the Western Hemisphere
Ford and Mokdad
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008;93:s1-s8.
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Trends in Hypertension Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, and Control Rates in United States Adults Between 1988-1994 and 1999-2004
Cutler et al.
Hypertension 2008;52:818-827.
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Obesity-Related Hypertension?: Weighing the Evidence
Kotchen
Hypertension 2008;52:801-802.
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Trends in Survival Over the Past Two Decades Among White and Black Patients With Newly Diagnosed Stage IV Breast Cancer
Dawood et al.
JCO 2008;26:4891-4898.
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Design considerations and rationale of a multi-center trial to sustain weight loss: the weight loss maintenance trial
Brantley et al.
Clin Trials 2008;5:546-556.
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Serum leptin concentrations and markers of immune function in overweight or obese postmenopausal women
Meyers et al.
J Endocrinol 2008;199:51-60.
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Catheter-directed Gastric Artery Chemical Embolization Suppresses Systemic Ghrelin Levels in Porcine Model
Arepally et al.
Radiology 2008;249:127-133.
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Obesity as a risk factor for the progression of paroxysmal to permanent atrial fibrillation: a longitudinal cohort study of 21 years
Tsang et al.
Eur Heart J 2008;29:2227-2233.
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Health Promotion for People With Disabilities: Implications for Empowering the Person and Promoting Disability-Friendly Environments
Rimmer and Rowland
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF LIFESTYLE MEDICINE 2008;2:409-420.
ABSTRACT  

Review: Stroke prevention: modifying risk factors
Romero et al.
Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2008;2:287-303.
ABSTRACT  

Age-Related Differences in Arterial Compliance Are Independent of Body Mass Index
Fjeldstad et al.
ANGIOLOGY 2008;59:454-458.
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Adopting New Orphans into the Family of Metabolic Regulators
Hummasti and Tontonoz
Mol. Endocrinol. 2008;22:1743-1753.
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Influence of Aging and Menopause on Lipids and Lipoproteins in Women
Kolovou and Bilianou
ANGIOLOGY 2008;59:54S-57S.
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Population-Based Prevention of Obesity: The Need for Comprehensive Promotion of Healthful Eating, Physical Activity, and Energy Balance: A Scientific Statement From American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, Interdisciplinary Committee for Prevention (Formerly the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science)
Kumanyika et al.
Circulation 2008;118:428-464.
ABSTRACT | FULL TEXT  

Fetuin-A and Incident Diabetes Mellitus in Older Persons
Ix et al.
JAMA 2008;300:182-188.
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Appetite-Related Gut Peptides in Obesity and Binge Eating Disorder
Geliebter et al.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF LIFESTYLE MEDICINE 2008;2:305-314.
ABSTRACT  

Visceral Obesity May Affect Oncologic Outcome in Patients with Colorectal Cancer
Moon et al.
Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2008;15:1918-1922.
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Current Trends in Weight Management: What Advice Do We Give to Patients?
Boucher et al.
Clin. Diabetes 2008;26:115-120.
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Orthopaedic Surgeon Workforce and Volume Assessment for Total Hip and Knee Replacement in the United States: Preparing for an Epidemic
Iorio et al.
JBJS 2008;90:1598-1605.
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Ocular Vascular Thrombotic Events: Central Retinal Vein and Central Retinal Artery Occlusions
Glueck et al.
CLIN APPL THROMB HEMOST 2008;14:286-294.
ABSTRACT  

Why Young Adults Hold the Key to Assessing the Obesity Epidemic in Children
Lee
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008;162:682-687.
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Physical Activity Prevents Augmented Body Fat Accretion in Moderately Iron-Deficient Rats
McClung et al.
J. Nutr. 2008;138:1293-1297.
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Trends in Diabetes, High Cholesterol, and Hypertension in Chronic Kidney Disease Among U.S. Adults: 1988-1994 to 1999-2004
Fox and Muntner
Diabetes Care 2008;31:1337-1342.
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Beyond Established and Novel Risk Factors: Lifestyle Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease
Mozaffarian et al.
Circulation 2008;117:3031-3038.
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Perceptions and Beliefs About Body Size, Weight, and Weight Loss Among Obese African American Women: A Qualitative Inquiry
Befort et al.
Health Educ Behav 2008;35:410-426.
ABSTRACT  

Susruta of India, an unrecognized contributor to the history of exercise physiology
Tipton
J. Appl. Physiol. 2008;104:1553-1556.
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Association of body mass index with all-cause and cause-specific mortality: findings from a prospective cohort study in Mumbai (Bombay), India
Pednekar et al.
Int J Epidemiol 2008;37:524-535.
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Regional Differences in Diabetes as a Possible Contributor to the Geographic Disparity in Stroke Mortality: The REasons for Geographic And Racial Differences in Stroke Study
Voeks et al.
Stroke 2008;39:1675-1680.
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Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation in Patients With Obesity
Cha et al.
Circulation 2008;117:2583-2590.
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Overview of human obesity and central mechanisms regulating energy homeostasis
Crowley
Ann Clin Biochem 2008;45:245-255.
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Cross-talk between estrogen and leptin signaling in the hypothalamus
Gao and Horvath
Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008;294:E817-E826.
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Associations of the Local Food Environment with Diet Quality--A Comparison of Assessments based on Surveys and Geographic Information Systems: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis
Moore et al.
Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:917-924.
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Association between Obesity during Pregnancy and Increased Use of Health Care
Chu et al.
NEJM 2008;358:1444-1453.
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Neighbourhood environment as a predictor of television watching among girls
MacLeod et al.
J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2008;62:288-292.
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Taste Cells of the Gut and Gastrointestinal Chemosensation
Egan and Margolskee
Mol. Interv. 2008;8:78-81.
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Long-term treatment of obese children and adolescents using a telemedicine support programme
Schiel et al.
J Telemed Telecare 2008;14:13-16.
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Weight Loss in Overweight and Obese Patients Following Successful Lumbar Decompression
Garcia et al.
JBJS 2008;90:742-747.
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Body Size and Serum 25 Hydroxy Vitamin D Response to Oral Supplements in Healthy Older Adults
Blum et al.
J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2008;27:274-279.
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Plasma Isoflavone Level and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer Among Japanese Women: A Nested Case-Control Study From the Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective Study Group
Iwasaki et al.
JCO 2008;26:1677-1683.
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Trends in overweight, obesity and blood pressure among Israeli working adults--implications for public health
Sheffer and Calderon-Margalit
Eur J Public Health 2008;18:121-125.
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Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Lall et al.
Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008;190:993-1002.
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Metabolic Syndrome Pandemic
Grundy
Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Bio. 2008;28:629-636.
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Skeletal muscle lipid oxidation and obesity: influence of weight loss and exercise
Berggren et al.
Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008;294:E726-E732.
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Using Visual Methods to Uncover Context
Keller et al.
Qual Health Res 2008;18:428-436.
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